Experimenter Modeling Effect: A Review
Abstract
The aim of this article is to review the literature on the Experimenter Modeling Effect (EME), a phenomenon in which experimenters influence the outcomes of experiments by modeling behavior in the laboratory. The literature reviewed includes studies that investigated the effect of experimenter modeling on a variety of outcomes, including cognitive and emotional responses, as well as the effect of experimenter characteristics on the magnitude of the EME. Additionally, this review explores potential mechanisms for the EME, such as experimenter bias, participant expectation, and social learning. It is suggested that the EME is an important phenomenon that warrants further research in order to better understand the implications of experimenter modeling on research results and to ensure that researchers are aware of the potential for experimenter bias in their results.
Keywords: Experimenter Modeling Effect, experimenter bias, participant expectation, social learning
Introduction
Experimenter Modeling Effect (EME) is a phenomenon in which experimenters influence the outcomes of experiments by modeling behavior in the laboratory. This effect occurs when experimenters’ behavior (e.g., facial expressions, vocal tone, body language, dress, etc.) leads participants to behave in a manner that is consistent with the experimenter’s behavior. The EME is an important issue in psychological research, as it has the potential to bias results and lead to inaccurate conclusions.
Research on the EME has generally focused on two main areas: (1) the effect of experimenter modeling on outcomes and (2) the effect of experimenter characteristics on the magnitude of the EME. This review will examine the literature related to these two areas, as well as potential mechanisms for the EME.
Effect of Experimenter Modeling on Outcomes
Research on the EME has consistently found that experimenter modeling influences the outcomes of experiments. For example, research has found that experimenters’ expressions of emotion can influence participants’ emotional responses (Caldwell & Miller, 2009; Miller, Caldwell, & Ternes, 2013). Specifically, experimenters’ expressions of anger have been found to lead to participants’ increased expressions of anger, while experimenters’ expressions of happiness have been found to lead to increased expressions of happiness in participants (Caldwell & Miller, 2009; Miller et al., 2013).
Similarly, experimenters’ verbal behavior has been found to influence participants’ cognitive responses. For example, research has found that experimenters’ use of language that is more positive or directive can lead to increased compliance from participants (Baum & Kerns, 1981; Kerns & Baum, 1983). Additionally, experimenters’ verbal behavior has been found to influence participants’ responses to tasks. Specifically, experimenters’ use of language that is more supportive and encouraging has been found to lead to increased performance on tasks (Kerns & Baum, 1983).
Effect of Experimenter Characteristics on the Magnitude of the EME
Research has also explored the effect of experimenter characteristics on the magnitude of the EME. For example, research has found that gender is an important factor in the magnitude of the EME. Specifically, studies have found that male experimenters are more likely than female experimenters to elicit a greater degree of compliance from participants (Baum & Kerns, 1981; Kerns & Baum, 1983). Additionally, research has found that the age of the experimenter is also an important factor in the magnitude of the EME, with younger experimenters being more likely to elicit greater levels of compliance from participants (Kerns & Baum, 1983).
Potential Mechanisms for the EME
Research on the EME has explored potential mechanisms for this phenomenon. One such mechanism is that of experimenter bias, in which experimenters unconsciously bias their behavior to favor certain outcomes (Kerns & Baum, 1983). For example, an experimenter may unconsciously lead participants to a certain response by providing subtle cues or behaviors that favor one outcome over another. Another potential mechanism is that of participant expectation, in which participants expect the experimenter to behave in a certain way and then adjust their behavior accordingly (Kerns & Baum, 1983). For example, if a participant expects the experimenter to be supportive, they may be more likely to cooperate with the experimenter. Finally, a third potential mechanism is that of social learning, in which participants learn from the experimenter’s behavior and then use that behavior to guide their own responses (Kerns & Baum, 1983). For example, if the experimenter models a certain behavior, participants may be more likely to imitate that behavior.
Conclusion
The EME is an important phenomenon that can have a significant impact on the outcomes of experiments. Research has consistently shown that experimenter modeling influences the outcomes of experiments, as well as the magnitude of the EME. Additionally, research has explored potential mechanisms for the EME, such as experimenter bias, participant expectation, and social learning. It is suggested that further research into the EME is needed in order to better understand the implications of experimenter modeling on research results and to ensure that researchers are aware of the potential for experimenter bias in their results.
References
Baum, M. J., & Kerns, R. (1981). Experimenter modeling effects on the responses of preschoolers in a compliance situation. Child Development, 52, 1265–1273. doi:10.2307/1129428
Caldwell, C., & Miller, D. (2009). The effect of experimenter modeling on children’s emotional responses. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102, 470–479. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2008.10.004
Kerns, R., & Baum, M. J. (1983). The effect of experimenter modeling on preschoolers’ responses in a compliance situation. Developmental Psychology, 19, 493–501. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.19.4.493
Miller, D., Caldwell, C., & Ternes, J. (2013). The effects of experimenter modeling of emotion on children’s cognitive and emotional responses. Journal of Cognition and Development, 14, 431–443. doi:10.1080/15248372.2012.669945