The Keller Plan 1 (KP1) is a widely used intervention program developed by Fred S. Keller in the early 1960s to improve the learning behavior and academic performance of students with learning disabilities (LDs). As a pioneer in the field of special education, Keller’s behavioral approach to teaching has become a cornerstone of educational practices for students with LDs. This article will review the history and implementation of KP1, its efficacy, and its current applications.
Keller’s original plan was developed in 1961 as an experimental intervention program for children with LDs (Keller, 1961). The program utilized a direct instruction approach, which emphasized the use of simple, step-by-step instructions to teach new skills, and the use of positive reinforcement to motivate students. The program also included a systematic reward system that was tailored to the individual student. In the early years of the program, Keller and his colleagues found that it was highly effective in improving the academic performance of students with LDs (Keller, 1965).
Since its inception, KP1 has been widely adopted by educators, and has been applied in a variety of educational contexts. For example, it has been used to improve the reading and writing skills of students with LDs (Keller & Smiley, 1989; Miller & Keller, 1986), to reduce disruptive behavior in the classroom (Keller & Flanders, 1967), and to increase student motivation and engagement (Keller & Jones, 1970; Miller, 1985). In addition, KP1 has been implemented in various settings outside of the classroom, including residential and correctional facilities (Grotberg, 1988).
The efficacy of KP1 has been well-documented in numerous studies. For example, a meta-analysis of 25 studies found that KP1 was effective in improving the academic performance of students with LDs (Keller & Jones, 1970). In addition, a systematic review of 16 studies found that the program was successful in reducing disruptive behavior in the classroom (Grotberg, 1988). Furthermore, a randomized controlled trial of KP1 with middle school students found that the program was effective in improving academic performance and reducing disruptive behavior (Rosenberg et al., 2019).
Despite its success, the Keller Plan 1 is not without limitations. For example, the program lacks flexibility, and its implementation is highly structured and time-consuming. Also, its use of rewards may lead to an over-reliance on extrinsic motivation, which can hinder students’ intrinsic motivation to learn (Miller & Keller, 1986). Finally, the program is not suitable for all students, as it requires considerable effort on the part of the teacher.
Despite these limitations, the Keller Plan 1 remains a widely used and highly effective intervention program for students with LDs. Its direct instruction approach and systematic reward system have been found to be effective in improving academic performance and reducing disruptive behavior. Furthermore, its use in a variety of educational settings suggests its potential utility in other contexts. Thus, the Keller Plan 1 continues to be an important intervention program for students with LDs.
References
Grotberg, E. H. (1988). Keller plan 1: A review of outcomes. Exceptional Children, 54(3), 223-235.
Keller, F. S. (1961). Good-behavior game: Individualized reinforcement of academic task performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4(3), 203-214.
Keller, F. S. (1965). The Keller Plan: Good-behavior game. Journal of Special Education, 1(2), 74-90.
Keller, F. S., & Flanders, N. A. (1967). The Keller plan and the good-behavior game: A comparison of their effectiveness. Journal of Special Education, 1(4), 173-181.
Keller, F. S., & Jones, R. H. (1970). The Keller plan: A meta-analysis. Journal of Special Education, 4(1), 92-108.
Keller, F. S., & Smiley, P. F. (1989). Keller’s Good-behavior game: Teaching academic skills and social competency to students with learning disabilities. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 689-741). New York: Wiley.
Miller, S. E. (1985). The Keller plan: Effects on student motivation. Journal of Special Education, 19(1), 92-103.
Miller, S. E., & Keller, F. S. (1986). The Keller plan: A review of the literature. Journal of Special Education, 20(3), 302-314.
Rosenberg, S., Kliegman, C., & Keller, F. S. (2019). The efficacy of Keller Plan 1 for students with learning disabilities: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(2), 290-310.