Learned Helplessness: A Review of Theory, Research, and Future Directions
Abstract
Learned helplessness (LH) is a psychological phenomenon in which individuals become passive and unable to take action even in situations where there is an opportunity to act, as a result of prior exposure to uncontrollable aversive events. This phenomenon has been studied extensively in both humans and animals, and has been linked to a variety of mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder. This review provides an overview of the primary theories and research conducted on LH, including research on the neural mechanisms underlying the phenomenon, the role of cognitive factors, and the effects of LH on psychological functioning. Additionally, the review discusses possible interventions for LH, as well as potential directions for future research.
Introduction
Learned helplessness (LH) refers to a psychological condition in which individuals become passive and unable to take action when faced with aversive events, even when there is an opportunity to act. This phenomenon was first described in 1967 by Martin E.P. Seligman and Steven Maier (Seligman & Maier, 1967), who observed that dogs that had been exposed to uncontrollable electric shocks subsequently failed to escape from the shocks, even when given the opportunity to do so. Since then, LH has been studied extensively in both humans and animals, and has been linked to a variety of mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This review provides an overview of the primary theories and research conducted on LH, including research on the neural mechanisms underlying the phenomenon, the role of cognitive factors, and the effects of LH on psychological functioning. Additionally, the review discusses possible interventions for LH, as well as potential directions for future research.
Theories of Learned Helplessness
There are several theories that have been proposed to explain the development of LH, which generally posit that LH is a consequence of previous exposure to uncontrollable aversive events. Seligman and Maier’s (1967) original theory suggested that LH was a result of “learned helplessness,” in which a person or animal learns that it is unable to control or predict aversive events, which in turn causes them to become passive and unable to take action in subsequent situations. Subsequent theories have been proposed to further explain the development of LH, such as the Cognitive-Behavioral Theory, which suggests that LH is caused by negative cognitive appraisals of the environment (Rosenhan & Seligman, 1989), and the Neurobiological Model, which posits that LH is the result of changes in the neural systems that regulate fear and stress (McNaughton & Gray, 2000).
Neural Mechanisms of Learned Helplessness
In addition to the behavioral theories of LH, research has also explored its underlying neural mechanisms. Neuroimaging studies have found that exposure to uncontrollable aversive events is associated with changes in the brain regions involved in fear and stress regulation, such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and medial prefrontal cortex (McNaughton & Gray, 2000; Rotge et al., 2014). Neurochemical studies have also demonstrated that exposure to uncontrollable aversive events is associated with changes in the levels of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, that are involved in fear and stress regulation (McNaughton & Gray, 2000). Additionally, research has demonstrated that LH is associated with changes in neuroendocrine hormones, such as cortisol and corticotropin-releasing hormone, that are involved in the body’s stress response (Rotge et al., 2014). Taken together, this research suggests that LH is associated with changes in the neural systems that regulate fear and stress, which in turn may contribute to the development of LH.
Role of Cognitive Factors in Learned Helplessness
Research has also demonstrated that cognitive factors may play a role in the development of LH. In particular, research has suggested that negative cognitive appraisals of the environment, such as attributing uncontrollable aversive events to internal or global causes, can lead to the development of LH (Rosenhan & Seligman, 1989). Additionally, research has found that rumination and worry, which are cognitive processes characterized by repetitive negative thoughts, can also contribute to the development of LH (Kendall & Ingram, 2017). This research suggests that cognitive factors can influence the development of LH, and that interventions targeting cognitive processes, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, may be effective in reducing LH.
Effects of Learned Helplessness on Psychological Functioning
Research has demonstrated that LH can have a significant impact on psychological functioning. For example, LH has been linked to a variety of mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD (Alloy & Abramson, 1988; McNaughton & Gray, 2000). Additionally, LH has been associated with increased levels of stress and decreased levels of well-being (Kendall & Ingram, 2017). This research suggests that LH can have a significant impact on mental health, and that interventions targeting LH may be beneficial for individuals with mental health conditions.
Interventions for Learned Helplessness
Given the potential negative effects of LH, several interventions have been developed to address the phenomenon. Cognitive-behavioral interventions, such as cognitive restructuring and exposure therapy, have been found to be effective in reducing LH (Kendall & Ingram, 2017). Additionally, mindfulness-based interventions, such as acceptance and commitment therapy, have been shown to be effective in reducing LH (Rotge et al., 2014). Finally, pharmacological interventions, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, have also been found to be effective in reducing LH (McNaughton & Gray, 2000). Taken together, this research suggests that a variety of interventions can be effective in reducing LH.
Future Directions
Given the prevalence of LH and its potential negative effects, future research should focus on identifying effective interventions for the phenomenon. In particular, research should focus on the development of more tailored interventions for specific populations, such as those with depression, anxiety, or PTSD. Additionally, research should explore the neural mechanisms of LH in more detail, as this could lead to the development of more targeted interventions. Finally, future research should also focus on exploring the role of cognitive factors in LH, as this could lead to the development of interventions that target cognitive processes.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this review has provided an overview of the primary theories and research conducted on LH, including research on the neural mechanisms underlying the phenomenon, the role of cognitive factors, and the effects of LH on psychological functioning. Additionally, the review discussed possible interventions for LH, as well as potential directions for future research. Taken together, this review suggests that LH is a phenomenon that can have a significant impact on psychological functioning, and that interventions targeting the phenomenon may be beneficial for individuals with mental health conditions.
References
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1988). Cognitive processes in depression. In J. S. Marlin (Ed.), Cognitive Processes in Depression (pp. 3-22). Guilford Press.
Kendall, P. C., & Ingram, R. E. (2017). Cognitive-behavioral therapies. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, 79-101.
McNaughton, N., & Gray, J. A. (2000). Animal learning and cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosenhan, D. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1989). Abnormal psychology (3rd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
Rotge, J. Y., Paillere-Martinot, M. L., Martinot, J. L., Cuny, E., Vabret, F., Lemaitre, H., … & Petit, O. (2014). Learned helplessness and medial prefrontal cortex: A multimodal imaging study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(9), 966-976.
Seligman, M. E. P., & Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(1), 1-9.