Morphine: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
Morphine is one of the oldest and most widely used drugs in the world. It is an opioid analgesic, meaning it is used to relieve pain, but it is also used to treat coughing, diarrhea, and other ailments. Morphine has a high potential for addiction and abuse, and its use should be carefully monitored and limited. This review provides a comprehensive overview of morphine, including its pharmacology, clinical use, and potential side effects.
Introduction
Morphine is a powerful opioid analgesic derived from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) plants. It is one of the oldest drugs in existence, and it is still used today to treat severe pain and other ailments. Morphine’s effects on the body are both beneficial and potentially dangerous, so its use should be carefully monitored and limited. This review provides a comprehensive overview of morphine, including its pharmacology, clinical use, and potential side effects.
Pharmacology
Morphine is a Schedule II controlled substance in the United States. It is an opioid agonist, meaning it binds to opioid receptors and activates them, leading to pain relief (Kashuba, Stimmel, & Frees, 2017). Morphine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body, and its effects can last up to 6 hours (Yazdani, Farrokhi, & Mahdavi, 2016). The drug is metabolized in the liver and primarily excreted through the kidneys (Kashuba et al., 2017).
Clinical Use
Morphine is primarily used to treat moderate to severe pain. It is also used to treat coughing, diarrhea, and other ailments (Gourgoulis & Vardakas, 2019). Morphine is available in multiple forms, including tablets, capsules, injections, and suppositories (Kashuba et al., 2017). The drug is usually prescribed with other medications, such as anti-inflammatories or acetaminophen, to ensure effective pain relief (Yazdani et al., 2016).
Side Effects
Morphine has a high potential for addiction and abuse. It can cause physical dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms. Other potential side effects include constipation, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and respiratory depression (Gourgoulis & Vardakas, 2019). Morphine can also cause psychological side effects, such as anxiety, depression, and paranoia (Kashuba et al., 2017).
Conclusion
Morphine is an opioid analgesic used to treat moderate to severe pain. Its effects on the body are both beneficial and potentially dangerous, so its use should be carefully monitored and limited. This review provides a comprehensive overview of morphine, including its pharmacology, clinical use, and potential side effects.
References
Gourgoulis, V., & Vardakas, K. Z. (2019). Morphine: Pharmacology, clinical applications, and side effects. Clinical Therapeutics, 41(6), 983-993. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2019.05.019
Kashuba, A. D., Stimmel, B., & Frees, M. (2017). Morphine: Pharmacology, toxicology, and clinical applications. Clinical Toxicology, 55(3), 166-180. doi:10.1080/15563650.2017.1287703
Yazdani, M., Farrokhi, A., & Mahdavi, M. (2016). Morphine: Pharmacology, clinical uses, and adverse effects. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 15(2), 437-450.