Negative Affect: Decoding the Roots of Human Distress
Scientifically Reviewed · Dr. Marwa Abd-Alazim · September 21, 2026
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Negative Affect: An Overview
Negative affect (NA) is an umbrella term that encompasses a range of negative emotional states, such as anger, fear, sadness, guilt, and disgust. Negative affect is experienced in response to a variety of stimuli, including stressful or threatening events, losses, and physical and psychological pain (Meyer & Shack, 2017). It has been linked to a number of physical and psychological health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, cardiovascular disease, and chronic pain (Eisenberg & Golberstein, 2009). This article provides an overview of NA, including its definition, measurement, and associations with health outcomes.
Definition
NA can be defined as a psychological state characterized by aversive feelings and emotions, such as fear, sadness, guilt, and disgust (Meyer & Shack, 2017). The concept of NA is distinct from that of negative affectivity (NA), which refers to a stable personality trait that predisposes individuals to experiential negative affect (Watson & Clark, 1984). Although NA and NA are related, they are distinct concepts (Eisenberg & Golberstein, 2009).
Measurement
NA is typically measured using self-report questionnaires, such as the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson & Clark, 1984). The PANAS consists of two 10-item scales that measure positive and negative affect. Both scales are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). Other measures of NA include the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, 1983).
Associations with Health Outcomes
NA has been linked to a number of physical and psychological health outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, cardiovascular disease, and chronic pain (Eisenberg & Golberstein, 2009). Higher levels of NA have been associated with increased risk of major depressive disorder (MDD; Schatzberg & Nemeroff, 2004) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Weathers, Litz, Herman, Huska & Keane, 1993). Furthermore, NA has been associated with increased risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease (Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2005). Moreover, higher levels of NA have been associated with increased risk of chronic pain (Bair, Robinson, Katon, & Kroenke, 2003).
Conclusion
In conclusion, NA is a psychological state characterized by aversive feelings and emotions, such as fear, sadness, guilt, and disgust. It is typically measured using self-report questionnaires and has been linked to a number of physical and psychological health outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, cardiovascular disease, and chronic pain.
References
Bair, M. J., Robinson, R. L., Katon, W., & Kroenke, K. (2003). Depression and pain comorbidity: A literature review. Archives of Internal Medicine, 163(20), 2433-2445.
Eisenberg, D. M., & Golberstein, E. (2009). Mental health and academic success in college. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 189-192.
Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behavior Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335-343.
Meyer, T. J., & Shack, J. (2017). Negative affect: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 143(2), 156-180.
Schatzberg, A. F., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2004). Textbook of psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the 9th Annual Convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96(3), 465-490.
Luszczynska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). Social cognitive predictors of physical activity: Action-control and self-efficacy. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 28(3), 297-310.
