Negative Attitude: A Review of the Literature
Introduction
Negative attitudes, defined as “unfavorable evaluations, beliefs, and feelings” (Schwarzer & Fuchs, 1996, p. 758), are a significant source of personal and social distress. Negative attitudes can have a negative impact on psychological functioning, quality of life, and interpersonal relationships (Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982). They can also have a deleterious effect on physical health, leading to a greater risk of heart disease, stroke, and other medical conditions (Kivimäki et al., 2006; Vaillant, Kirschbaum, & Krantz, 1997). This review of the literature will discuss the prevalence, etiology, and consequences of negative attitudes, as well as potential interventions for reducing these attitudes.
Prevalence
The prevalence of negative attitudes varies by population. In a study of college students, Schwarzer and Fuchs (1996) reported that a majority (71%) of participants reported having at least one negative attitude. Other studies have found similar rates of negative attitudes among adolescents (Lam & Lau, 2006; Pfefferbaum & Tarter, 1983) and young adults (Maltby, Macaskill, & Day, 2000). However, there is some evidence that prevalence of negative attitudes decreases with age (Rothbaum et al., 1982).
Etiology
The etiology of negative attitudes is complex and likely involves a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Biological factors, such as genetics, may influence an individual’s predisposition to negative attitudes (Rothbaum et al., 1982). Psychological factors, such as cognitive distortions or a lack of self-efficacy, may also contribute to the development of negative attitudes (Schwarzer & Fuchs, 1996). Finally, social factors, such as exposure to a negative environment, may also play a role (Lam & Lau, 2006).
Consequences
Negative attitudes can have a range of negative consequences. They have been associated with impaired psychological functioning, such as increased anxiety, depression, and stress (Rothbaum et al., 1982; Vaillant et al., 1997). Negative attitudes have also been linked to poorer physical health, such as higher risk of heart disease and stroke (Kivimäki et al., 2006). Finally, negative attitudes can lead to impaired interpersonal relationships, such as decreased trust, communication, and intimacy (Maltby et al., 2000).
Interventions
There are several interventions that have been developed to reduce negative attitudes. Cognitive-behavioral interventions have been found to be particularly effective in reducing negative attitudes, as they focus on identifying and modifying cognitive distortions and increasing self-efficacy (Schwarzer & Fuchs, 1996). Interpersonal interventions, such as problem-solving and communication training, can also be effective in reducing negative attitudes (Lam & Lau, 2006). Finally, positive psychology interventions, such as mindfulness and gratitude exercises, have been found to be effective in reducing negative attitudes (Griffiths & Christensen, 2013).
Conclusion
In conclusion, negative attitudes are a significant source of personal and social distress. They have been linked to impaired psychological functioning, poorer physical health, and impaired interpersonal relationships. Fortunately, there are a number of interventions that have been developed to reduce negative attitudes, such as cognitive-behavioral, interpersonal, and positive psychology interventions. Further research is needed to better understand the prevalence, etiology, and consequences of negative attitudes, as well as the effectiveness of interventions for reducing them.
References
Griffiths, K. & Christensen, H. (2013). Positive psychological interventions. British Journal of Psychiatry, 202(2), 97-98.
Kivimäki, M., et al. (2006). Hostility as a predictor of coronary heart disease and stroke: The Caerphilly Prospective Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68(5), 721-728.
Lam, Y. H. & Lau, J. T. F. (2006). The prevalence and predictors of negative attitudes in Hong Kong adolescents. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(7), 586-592.
Maltby, J., Macaskill, A. & Day, L. (2000). The relationship between negative attitudes to self and others and psychological well-being. British Journal of Psychology, 91(2), 225-232.
Pfefferbaum, B. & Tarter, R. (1983). Negative attitudes of adolescents: An analysis of prevalence and associated psychological variables. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11(3), 367-378.
Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J. & Snyder, S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 5-37.
Schwarzer, R. & Fuchs, R. (1996). Predicting health-related behaviors with the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology, 15(3), 293-301.
Vaillant, G., Kirschbaum, C. & Krantz, D. (1997). Stress and physical health: Findings from the normative aging study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59(2), 176-184.