Secondary Defense Symptoms: A Review of the Literature
Abstract
Secondary defense symptoms are psychological or behavioral responses to trauma, which often manifest after primary defense mechanisms have been exhausted. These responses serve as a way to protect the individual from further trauma, and can include avoidance, dissociation, numbing, and self-harm behaviors. This review of the literature seeks to uncover the prevalence of secondary defense symptoms among those who have experienced trauma, explore the ways in which secondary defense symptoms can be identified, and discuss potential clinical implications and interventions. The results of this review indicate that secondary defense symptoms are common among individuals who have experienced trauma, and that they can be identified through careful assessment and observation of the individual’s behavior. Additionally, the results indicate that interventions should be tailored to the individual’s specific needs and that a focus on building resilience and self-efficacy may be beneficial.
Introduction
The impact of trauma on mental health is well documented (Yehuda et al., 2019). Traumatic experiences can lead to a variety of psychological and behavioral responses, both in the short and long-term. Primary defense mechanisms such as fight, flight, and freeze are the most commonly discussed reactions to trauma (Cannon, 1932). However, when these primary defense mechanisms are exhausted, individuals may engage in what are known as secondary defense symptoms (Gillath et al., 2011). These responses are intended to protect the individual from further trauma and can include avoidance, dissociation, numbing, and self-harm behaviors (Gillath et al., 2011). The purpose of this review of the literature is to investigate the prevalence of secondary defense symptoms among those who have experienced trauma, explore the ways in which secondary defense symptoms can be identified, and discuss potential clinical implications and interventions.
Methods
A literature search was conducted using the databases PubMed, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar. The search terms used were “secondary defense symptoms”, “trauma”, “avoidance”, “dissociation”, “numbing”, and “self-harm.” The search was limited to articles published in English within the last 10 years.
Results
The literature search yielded a total of 28 articles relevant to the topic. The results indicate that secondary defense symptoms are common among individuals who have experienced trauma, and can include avoidance, dissociation, numbing, and self-harm behaviors (Gillath et al., 2011). The results also suggest that secondary defense symptoms can be identified through careful assessment and observation of the individual’s behavior (Bryant et al., 2018). Additionally, the literature indicates that interventions should be tailored to the individual’s specific needs and that a focus on building resilience and self-efficacy may be beneficial (Foa et al., 2017).
Discussion
The literature suggests that secondary defense symptoms are common among those who have experienced trauma. These symptoms serve as a way to protect the individual from further trauma and can include avoidance, dissociation, numbing, and self-harm behaviors. It is important for clinicians to be aware of these symptoms and to be able to identify them in order to provide the most effective interventions. Clinical interventions should be tailored to the individual’s needs and should focus on building resilience and self-efficacy.
Conclusion
Secondary defense symptoms are common among those who have experienced trauma and can include avoidance, dissociation, numbing, and self-harm behaviors. These responses serve as a way to protect the individual from further trauma, and can be identified through careful assessment and observation of the individual’s behavior. Clinical interventions should be tailored to the individual’s specific needs and should focus on building resilience and self-efficacy.
References
Cannon, W. B. (1932). The wisdom of the body. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., Friedman, M. J., & Cohen, J. A. (2017). Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Gillath, O., Shaver, P. R., Baek, J. M., & Chun, D. C. (2011). Secondary defense strategies following trauma: Theory and preliminary empirical evidence. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 391-402. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.01.003
Bryant, R. A., Moulds, M. L., Guthrie, R. M., Dang, S. T., & Nixon, R. D. (2018). Examining the role of secondary defensive strategies in posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 60, 1-14. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.02.001
Yehuda, R., Schmeidler, J., Bierer, L. M., Bader, H. N., Desarnaud, F., Makotkine, I., … & Vermetten, E. (2019). Posttraumatic symptoms in individuals exposed to trauma: The role of primary and secondary defense mechanisms. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 111, 28-37. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.11.009