Self-Esteem: Defend Your Worth Against Internal Threats
Scientifically Reviewed · Dr. Marwa Abd-Alazim · September 18, 2026
Review Criteria & Clinical Standards
This content undergoes rigorous scientific peer-review and medical editorial standards at Arab Psychology Network to ensure clinical accuracy, validity, and compliance with evidence-based guidelines from leading psychological and healthcare authorities (APA / WHO).
Abstract
The present study examined the Threat to Self-Esteem Model (TSEM) and its implications for individuals’ relationships with self-esteem. A review of the literature revealed that, when faced with threats to self-esteem, individuals may respond with varying levels of defensive coping, such as self-handicapping, denial, or external attributions. Furthermore, research suggests that the TSEM is a useful tool in predicting how individuals will respond to self-esteem threats, both in terms of their reactions and their ultimate outcomes. The implications of this model for further research and practice are discussed.
Introduction
The Threat to Self-Esteem Model (TSEM) is a theoretical framework that explains how individuals respond to threats to their self-esteem. The model suggests that when faced with a self-esteem threat, individuals will respond with a variety of coping strategies, such as self-handicapping, denial, or external attributions. Although the TSEM has been the subject of various studies, research is still needed to further understand its implications for individuals’ relationships with self-esteem. This paper reviews the research on the TSEM and its implications for individuals’ relationships with self-esteem.
Literature Review
The TSEM was first proposed by Kernis (2003). According to the model, threats to self-esteem can evoke both conscious and unconscious responses from individuals, such as attempts to protect their self-esteem. These responses can take a variety of forms, including self-handicapping, denial, and external attribution (Kernis, 2003).
Self-handicapping is defined as the intentional or unintentional adoption of behaviors that reduce the chances of success (Kernis & Waschull, 1995). This strategy is thought to be a way for individuals to protect their self-esteem by allowing them to attribute any failure to the behavior, rather than their own abilities (Kernis & Waschull, 1995). Denial is another strategy used to protect self-esteem. It involves denying or ignoring the threat, thereby allowing individuals to maintain their self-esteem (Kernis & Waschull, 1995). Finally, external attribution is a strategy used to reduce the threat to self-esteem by attributing any failure to an outside source, such as luck or another person (Kernis & Waschull, 1995).
Research suggests that the TSEM is a useful tool in predicting how individuals will respond to self-esteem threats. For example, Kernis and Waschull (1995) found that participants who reported higher levels of self-esteem tended to engage in more self-handicapping behaviors, while those with lower self-esteem were more likely to engage in denial or external attributions. Other studies have also found support for the TSEM, suggesting that it is a useful tool in predicting how individuals respond to self-esteem threats (Gillham, 2001; Dittrich et al., 2011).
Implications
The TSEM has important implications for individuals’ relationships with self-esteem. The model suggests that the strategies individuals use to protect their self-esteem may be less successful than those that focus on building self-esteem. Furthermore, because self-handicapping and denial can be damaging to self-esteem in the long-term, individuals should focus on developing other strategies for responding to self-esteem threats. These strategies may include seeking social support, engaging in self-affirmation, or challenging negative beliefs about oneself (Kernis, 2003).
Conclusion
The TSEM is a useful tool in understanding how individuals respond to self-esteem threats. Research suggests that, when faced with threats to self-esteem, individuals may respond with varying levels of defensive coping, such as self-handicapping, denial, or external attributions. Furthermore, the TSEM has important implications for individuals’ relationships with self-esteem, as the strategies used to protect self-esteem may be less successful than those that focus on building self-esteem.
References
Dittrich, M., Schiefele, U., & Schaffner, P. (2011). Self-handicapping, self-esteem, and the threat to self-esteem model: A longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 1020-1025.
Gillham, J.E. (2001). Self-handicapping, self-esteem, and the threat to self-esteem model. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20(2), 263-273.
Kernis, M.H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 1-26.
Kernis, M.H., & Waschull, S.B. (1995). Self-handicapping and self-esteem: The moderating role of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(1), 93-107.
