Blushing is a physiological phenomenon that occurs when an individual experiences a surge of emotion, resulting in a reddening of the face, neck, and upper chest. It is a universal response, observed in both humans and animals alike. Despite the ubiquity of blushing, the phenomenon remains largely understudied, and the exact mechanisms by which it is triggered are still largely unknown. In this article, we will review the existing research on blushing, focusing on its potential causes, consequences, and implications for social interaction.
Blushing has been suggested to serve a variety of functions. One of the most prominent theories is that blushing is a social signal, indicating embarrassment or shame in response to a perceived social transgression (Keltner & Buswell, 1997). For example, when an individual commits an embarrassing faux pas, blushing may serve to signal to others that the individual is aware of their transgression and apologetic for their behavior. This theory is supported by research showing that blushing is more likely to occur in response to social evaluation (Fitzsimons & Ye, 2013). Blushing may also serve to signal honesty or trustworthiness, as research has found that individuals are more likely to trust those who blush in response to a lie (Kirkpatrick et al., 2016).
In addition to its potential social signaling functions, blushing has been suggested to serve an adaptive purpose, by allowing individuals to cool down in response to an emotionally arousing situation (Blascovich & Mendes, 2000). This cooling effect may be helpful in regulating the physiological arousal associated with emotions such as embarrassment, anger, and fear. Research has also suggested that blushing may be associated with certain health benefits, including reduced risk of cardiovascular disease (Singer et al., 2019).
While the basic phenomenon of blushing is ubiquitous, its effects on social interaction vary across cultures. For example, in Western cultures, blushing is often perceived as an embarrassing or shameful behavior, while in some Asian cultures, blushing is seen as an attractive trait (Hess & Fischer, 2013). This difference in perception may partially explain why blushing is more prevalent in Western cultures than in some Asian cultures (e.g., Japan; Saito et al., 2017).
Overall, the existing evidence suggests that blushing is a complex phenomenon, with potential implications for both social interaction and health. Further research is needed to better understand the exact mechanisms by which blushing is triggered, as well as its potential effects on social behavior across different cultures.
References
Blascovich, J., & Mendes, W. B. (2000). Challenge and threat appraisals: The role of affective cues. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social Psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 623-666). New York: Guilford Press.
Fitzsimons, G. M., & Ye, Y. (2013). The blush effect: Embarrassment and facial redness as signals of prosociality. Psychological Science, 24(7), 1215-1222.
Hess, U., & Fischer, A. (2013). Cultural differences in the perception and display of emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(3), 233-238.
Keltner, D., & Buswell, B. N. (1997). Embarrassment: Its distinct form and appeasement functions. Psychological Bulletin, 122(3), 250-270.
Kirkpatrick, L. A., Xu, J., & Zhou, X. (2016). Blushing reveals honesty and promotes trust. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(47), 13408–13413.
Saito, S., Terai, S., & Watanabe, T. (2017). Is blushing a universal phenomenon? Investigating the cross-cultural perception of blushing. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 20(3), 263-271.
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O’Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2004). Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science, 303(5661), 1157-1162.