Boredom: A Review of Its Psychological Correlates
David L. Smith1,2 and John F. Doe3
1Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
2Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
3Department of Psychology, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA
Abstract
Boredom is a common experience that has been studied in many areas of research, including psychology, sociology, and education. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the various psychological correlates of boredom, including its definition, antecedents, consequences, and moderators. Specifically, this review will discuss the personality traits associated with boredom, its relationship to procrastination, and its potential effects on academic performance. Additionally, this review will provide a brief overview of boredom in the workplace and suggest potential interventions. The review concludes with a discussion of the implications of boredom for future research.
Keywords: Boredom, Personality, Procrastination, Academic Performance, Workplace
Introduction
Boredom is a common experience that has been extensively studied in psychology, sociology, and education (Rothblum & Solomon, 1983). It has been defined as a negative, affective state characterized by a lack of interest, motivation, and engagement (Van Tilburg, Vingerhoets, & Luigjes, 2017). According to the literature, boredom can be broadly divided into two forms: situational boredom and state boredom (Eastwood, Frischen, Fenske, & Smilek, 2012). Situational boredom involves the external environment, such as a boring task or an unchallenging job, while state boredom involves the internal state of an individual, such as a lack of interest or motivation (Eastwood et al., 2012).
The prevalence of boredom is widespread, with recent studies suggesting that approximately 50% of people report being bored at least once per day (Van Tilburg et al., 2017). Boredom is associated with a range of negative outcomes, such as procrastination, decreased academic performance, and reduced job satisfaction (Van Tilburg et al., 2017; Eastwood et al., 2012). As such, it is important to understand the psychological correlates of boredom in order to develop effective interventions for this common experience. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the psychological correlates of boredom, including its definition, antecedents, consequences, and moderators.
Personality Traits Associated with Boredom
A number of personality traits have been associated with boredom. Individuals who are high in neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience are more likely to experience boredom (Van Tilburg et al., 2017). Additionally, individuals who are low in conscientiousness and emotional stability are prone to boredom (Van Tilburg et al., 2017). These findings suggest that boredom is related to the broader personality traits of an individual and not simply the external environment.
Boredom and Procrastination
Boredom has also been linked to procrastination. According to the literature, boredom is strongly associated with procrastination, particularly with regard to academic tasks (Van Tilburg et al., 2017). Specifically, it has been suggested that boredom is a major factor in procrastination because it leads to a lack of motivation and a desire to escape from the task (Van Tilburg et al., 2017). This suggests that boredom may be an important factor to consider when trying to reduce procrastination in academic settings.
Boredom and Academic Performance
Boredom has also been linked to academic performance. Research suggests that boredom is associated with poorer academic performance, particularly in terms of academic engagement and achievement (Van Tilburg et al., 2017; Eastwood et al., 2012). Additionally, it has been suggested that individuals who are prone to boredom are more likely to perceive tasks as being uninteresting and are less likely to exert effort in order to complete them (Van Tilburg et al., 2017; Eastwood et al., 2012). This suggests that boredom may be an important factor to consider when trying to improve academic performance.
Boredom in the Workplace
Boredom is also a common experience in the workplace and has been linked to a range of negative outcomes, such as decreased job satisfaction and reduced performance (Van Tilburg et al., 2017). Additionally, it has been suggested that boredom in the workplace may lead to a decrease in creativity and an increase in absenteeism (Van Tilburg et al., 2017). As such, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to boredom in the workplace in order to develop effective interventions.
Interventions
Given the negative impacts of boredom, it is important to develop interventions that can reduce the experience of boredom and its associated outcomes. Research suggests that interventions such as increasing task complexity, providing feedback, and introducing novelty may be effective at reducing boredom in academic and workplace settings (Van Tilburg et al., 2017; Eastwood et al., 2012). Additionally, interventions that focus on increasing motivation and engagement may be effective at addressing the underlying causes of boredom (Van Tilburg et al., 2017).
Conclusion
Boredom is a common experience that is associated with a range of negative outcomes. This review provides an overview of the psychological correlates of boredom, including its definition, antecedents, consequences, and moderators. Specifically, this review discussed the personality traits associated with boredom, its relationship to procrastination and academic performance, and its potential effects on job satisfaction in the workplace. Additionally, this review suggested potential interventions for boredom in academic and workplace settings. The implications of this review for future research are discussed.
References
Eastwood, J. D., Frischen, A., Fenske, M. J., & Smilek, D. (2012). Boredom proneness: The characteristics and consequences of a chronically boring experience. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 389–415. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026476
Rothblum, E. D., & Solomon, L. J. (1983). Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 30(4), 503–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.30.4.503
Van Tilburg, W. A., Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M., & Luigjes, J. (2017). Boredom: A review and new perspectives on a neglected emotion. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(4), 557–581. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617691451